About this page: This page will store my article analysis notes on cultural art periods, movements, works, and artists.
About ART 2030
GEN ED: Fine Arts Designation; Liberal Studies Experience A global survey of art history focusing on the early visual artistic traditions of Europe, Asia, Africa and the Americas from the dawn of art to 1400. The course examines visual art and art making in religious, social, cultural, and political contexts. Link to original source: here
My final analysis paper on the Caracalla Portraits can be found here.
Article Analysis Papers
Article Analysis of “Examining the Lives of Ancient Egyptian Women” 26 February 2018
Melinda Nelson-Hurst from Bible History Daily wrote “Examining the Lives of Ancient Egyptian Women, The case of an ancient Egyptian woman named Tjat” in September of 2014. Beni Hasan is 150 miles south of the city of Minya, and has attracted several Egyptologists and tourists over the years. Tjat’s resting place is shared with the Khnumhotep II family in tomb #3 This tomb is stone-cut and preserved nicely with hieroglyphs that help to tell her story. In Middle Egypt during ancient Egypt’s “classical age” of the Middle Kingdom around the 1900’s B.C., Tjat appears in four scenes within Khnumhotep II’s tomb. The hieroglyphic writing labels Tjat as a “sealer” or “treasurer”, keeping the property of her lord. Tjat does not appear alone, but with her children. Several have speculated over the years that Tjat was a wife or mistress of Khnumhotep II because her children are with her. Though women are seen as equals to men under the laws in ancient Egypt, in hierarchical scale women of authority are still shown as smaller than men, and women of less authority are shown smaller than those women with more power. The only time a “women” may appear larger than a man is if they are a god.
Naunakht was an Egyptian woman who lived hear a working site where royal tombs were being built in the Valley of the Kings. Naunakht chose to not will her property to her children because they did not care for her in her elder years. She did have a husband, but his will is legally separate from hers, showing that women did have legal power to make decisions with property.
There were not as many jobs for Egyptian women in ancient times, as compared to men. This is one reason for the inequality between the two genders. It was socially unacceptable for women to live on their own. In the case of husbands who have died or women of divorce the woman would live with her son, or another male family member because it would be too difficult, financially, for her to live alone. It was not uncommon for women to live with their male relatives for long periods of time.
Some women were successful in working in the homes of prestigious families performing administrative duties, such as Tjat in the Khnumhotep home. As a “sealer” it can be assumed that Tjat would seal Khnumhotep’s family valuables in clay containers for safekeeping and storage. Because Tjat appears close to Khnumhotep’s wife, Khety, it is assumed that she performs more services for her than Khnumhotep. Being trusted to care for valuables over the years may infer that Tjat may have become a valued person and part of the Khnumhotep family.
From this article we can see that ancient Egyptian women from the Middle Kingdom are almost seen as “separate but equal”, though class comes into play, as well. The art before the Middle Kingdom in the First Intermediate Period is said to be pessimistic because of the political pressure, the fall of the Old Kingdom under Pepi II, the low food supply, and bad economy. In the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BC) there was an explosion of literature and art. The images of Tjat are well done, going back to the classical Southern Egyptian style. It appears that the Khnumhotep household is managing well during this time.
Bibliography
Nelson-Hurst, Melinda, “Examining the Lives of Ancient Egyptian Women: The case of an ancient Egyptian woman named Tjat.” 02 September 2014. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-near-eastern-world/examining-the-lives-of-ancient-egyptian-women/.
Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt. Cothren. Art History. Vol. I. Boston: Pearson Education, 2018.
Article Analysis of “From Person to Ancestor, the plastered skull from Jericho” 08 February 2018
Alexandra Fletcher of the British Museum, Middle East, writes of the purpose behind the plastered skulls from Jericho. There are a total of seven plastered human skulls from the Neolithic Period, discovered by Kathleen Kenyon in 1953, from two distinct periods: The Pre-pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) from 10,200 to 8,800 BC and the Pre-pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) from 8,800 to 6,900 BC. With an increase of population came signs of settling such as evidence of crops and domestication of animals, in addition to traditional nomadic hunting of wild game. The Middle East Settlements had a secure water supply, but when the population got too big it started to split into several subgroups to sustain themselves and to increase the odds of survival. Those who came to Jericho in Palestine had a culture shock when comparing living in a cave to arriving at a large city on six to seven acres of land with around two-thousand people. The walls of Jericho were five feet thick and twelve feet high. The tower was thirty feet tall and thirty-three feet in diameter. It was the first monumental stone structure. In the middle of the PPNB period the practice of decapitating the dead, and preserving and decorating their skull became a part of the Jerichobian culture. The burial practices of Jericho were such that when one died they were buried in the floor of the house for six months then dug back up. The head was removed from the body and the body was placed into an ossuary. The skull was then scraped clean and plastered. This was not an exact portrait of the dead, however. When complete the plastered skull would be placed on a shelf in the main living area of the home. Some skulls were decorated with shells representing closed eyes, or flat inlays for eyes that seem to follow you as you walk by. Most skulls would be arranged to face the same direction or to a unified focal point in the room.
With evidence gathered from CT scans on a Jericho skull it is determined that from an early age children’s heads were bound in a way to significantly alter the shape of the skull to a more desired form, before the infant skull was hardened at a later age. This suggests social status with the physical shape of the skull, indicating ancestral worship was related to the skulls. There was also a preference for low and wide shaped skulls to be chosen for plastering. The CT scans also shown that both male and female skulls were plastered, showing some equality. The CT shows the methods used to prepare the skulls, chiseling a precise hole and filling the skull cavity with various soils, and closing the cavity with clay. “Ancestor worship is broadly defined as the material representation of the dead among the living (Fletcher 26).” It is believed that there will be less social tension if there was unified beliefs and acknowledging a shared history in the community, encouraging the community to unite and grow as a society, rather than become distant. Authority and societal hierarchy was developed through the preservation of plastering skulls. Over time the skulls become more of an average non-distinct ancestor instead of a specific family member. Even still, the practice was unique and united the community.
From this article we can see the great importance the dead has on the prehistoric Middle Eastern peoples of Jericho and surrounding civilizations. It is quite poetic to think that your deceased loved ones are still with you looking out for you across the living room, ready to bless your home as a holy ancestor. The great care put into the conservation and manipulation of the skulls also shows the great value they had to the people in that area of that time. Having the CT scans reveal more information, too, must have been quite a refreshing and intriguing discovery, especially when seeing how the skulls were manipulated from early childhood. Alexandra Fletcher wrote, “The Jericho skull’s cache was different, however. The tumbled heap of plastered skulls, placed beneath a plaster floor between two walls, looked more like the disposal of items no longer in use (Fletcher 24-25).” This can be interpreted that over time and through the generations the skulls and ancestor worship became increasingly less important to those who practiced it. Culturally one may wonder what caused such a discontent for the practice and care for the ancestral representation through the plastering and preservation of skulls since it was handled with such care in the beginning.
Bibliography Fletcher, Alexandra. “From Person to Ancestor, the plastered skull from Jericho.” Academia. Current World Archeology. Issue 74. https://www.academia.edu/25451268/From_Person_to_Ancestor_the_plastered_skull_from_Jericho
Article Analysis of “Roman Portrait Sculpture: The Stylistic Cycle” 20 February 2018
Rosemarie Trentinella of the Metropolitan Museum of Art wrote “Roman Portrait Sculpture: The Stylistic Cycle.” This article discusses how each Roman dynasty sought to emphasize a particular element as either “veristic” or “classicizing” in representing their particular legacy. Veristic means naturalistic, and thus realistic in capturing natural details such as wrinkles and imperfections. Classicizing means imitating styles and using characteristics and elements from previous emperor portraiture. One would use classicizing to prove their loyalty to previous rulers, to appear in the same level of authority of a ruler, or to show they may have been related to a previous ruler.
Both public services and a strong military were highly valued in the Republic of Rome. Oftentimes very detailed features in a bust were preferred by patrons such as wrinkles and other imperfections. When creating a full-length statue figure the body would be very generic, while the head would still be a highly detailed portrait attached to the body. In the imperial period, however, Augustus Caesar’s sculpture portrait presented particular ideologies of being heroic with youthful beauty, leaving the imperfections out of the piece.
Emperors were loyal to their imperial predecessors and used classicizing idealization from portraiture of the past emperors in an effort to legitimize their authority. In order to play the part one must look the part. Tiberius, for example, had a portrait made to indicate that he was comparable to Augustus Caesar, though they were not related. Eventually the style went back from idealized classicism back to verism to reemphasize the strength of the Republic and military through several wars. In keeping with verism a new technique was discovered in using a drill, allowing artists to accurately portray the tight curled hairstyles ladies would wear. Hadrian had his portrait made with a Greek-style beard. This inspired others to be portrayed as youthful with a full head of hair and a full beard, as well, such as emperor Antoninus Pius.
In keeping with verism Caracalla’s portrait goes a step further by expressing emotion, while all previous portraiture lacked emotion, and in doing so thought that the view of an emotionless leader showed confidence and strength. The statue of Caracalla has a furrowed brow and a short militaristic hairstyle. Given his history of killing his brother, Geta, and essentially erasing him from existence, he was considered one of the most bloodthirsty rulers in the Republic of Rome. His portrait does give that uneasy feeling that you should be intimidated by him. With this example of how portraiture can evoke emotions from the viewer other powerful militaristic leaders commissioned more robust statues. Trebonianus Gallus’ full-body statue emphasizes his strength and masculinity through a not-so-generic body-build, but a robust torso and muscular limbs.
Emperor Trajan attempted to show himself as a “good” ruler, after Rome had had so many harsh militaristic rulers, by having a clean-shaven face and by going back to beautiful and youthful features, classicizing the youthful Augustus Caesar.
From this article we can clearly see how events and politics have affected Roman portraiture in ancient Rome from standard bland body-types to distinctive stances and features. From an expressionless face to a face that could tell a hundred stories at a glance. Hundreds of years later the Renaissance would begin in the 1300s A.D. through the 1700s A.D. The impact of ancient Roman portraiture was such that the Renaissance was a “rebirth” of classical Greek and Roman art. Ancient Roman portrait artists set a high standard for the Renaissance artists to match, and the results are amazing.
Bibliography
Trentinella, Rosemarie. “Roman Portrait Sculpture: The Stylistic Cycle.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–October 2003. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ropo2/hd_ropo2.htm
Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt. Cothren. Art History. Vol. I. Boston: Pearson Education, 2018.
Article Analysis of “Roman Wall Painting Styles” 27 November 2017
Dr. Jessica Amber of Khan Academy discusses four distinct types of wall paintings nineteenth-century German scholar, August Mau, observed in Pompeii still preserved today since Mount Vesuvius’ eruption in 79 CE in her article, “Roman wall painting styles.” The styles Mau observed can be found throughout surrounding cities in Italy, enabling scientists and historians to correlate the period the frescos were created. The paintings were preserved by the rich ash of Vesuvius, but also because they were made in the buon fresco technique, allowing the paint and pigments to harden as the plaster dried.
Many homes in Pompeii had elaborate murals. Some richer residents had outside living rooms with painted walls in their gardens. The interior walls of Roman homes were flat and plane allowing artists to paint them using a mixture of pigments, lime, soap, and a bit of wax. Mau (1840-1909) analyzed Pompeian frescoes in the 1870’s.
The first of four styles Mau observed was walls covered with illusions of slabs of marble and moldings (c. 300-100 BCE). This style had Greek influences because Rome had recently conquered it, and it was popular during the Republican period. Mau considered the space of the walls and how the paint was used to divide the wall or to use paint to make an illusion of expanding a wall. Mau believed the first style’s origins were of the Hellenistic period of Alexandria in the third century, B.C.E. painted with brightly colored blocks to look like purple, pink, and yellow marble, and gave the illusion of a three-dimensional surface.
The second style Mau observed was extended space in a room by painting landscapes or shallow platforms (c. 100-20 BCE). Mau called this style the “Architectural Style,” which had developed earlier in Rome, and contained faux marble blocks along the wall base like in the first style. In the second style the frescoes were so elaborate. The columns in the corners of the room looked very realistic. The cityscapes and landscapes are very detailed with columns, buildings, vegetation, and intricate architecture elements. Many of the buildings in the cityscapes are at angles with multiple vanishing points to create depth, rather than just flat and front-facing. Some frescos in the second style include portraiture of life-size people in a technique called megalographia.
Pompeian frescoes included portraiture and still lifes along with the land and cityscapes. One notable painting is of a female artist at work, found on a yellow wall in a small room in the House of the Surgeon. As an artist, it is evident that this woman received a formal education, like those in Rome, Egypt, and Crete. The background of this painting shows that she is in a room with an opening behind her. There are a couple of spectators in the room beside her and a small child steadying the panel canvas. The color of the robes are still bright blue, yellow, and pale pink. Another example of portraiture is of a husband and wife in House Number Seven in Pompeii in 50 A.D., that looks like real people with individualized faces. The man is holding a box and a writing utensil, showing that the man is educated and can read and write.
The third style Mau observed was frescos of rich, solid color in a large space embellished with floral details (c. 20 BCE-c. 50 CE), calling the third style the “Ornate Style”. This style was more stylized than realistic, using slender architectural details, and very minimalistic. Some of the minimal details in small areas include landscapes with shepherds, and introduced Egyptian themes. The fourth style Mau observed, called “Intricate Style,” was a mix and unification of all three of the previous styles into very complex compositions (c. 50-79 CE). Large illustrations on central panels are a new incorporation in the fourth style. The fourth style was considered to be gaudy, using bright, bold colors, painted architecture that did not make good sense, and was overwhelming because there were too many elements. Jessica Amber writes that after Pompeii Romans continued to have frescoes painted on the interior of their homes, though there was not a Fifth or Sixth style observed for categorization.