Header image from Smarthistory, Francisco Goya, The Third of May, 1808 (link)
About this page: This page will serve to store my article analysis papers on artists, movements, and artworks.
About ART 2130
GEN ED: Fine Arts Designation; Liberal Studies Experience A global survey of art history from 1400 to the present examining the later artistic traditions of Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceania and the Americas. The course focuses on visual art and art making in light of changing social, political, religious, and cultural circumstances. Source of original information here.
The link to my final artist/artwork analysis on Frida Kahlo can be found on my website here.
Article Analysis Papers
Ghent Restoration Article Analysis 04 October 2017
The “Million-euro makeover for Belgium’s Ghent Altarpiece” article refers to Flemish artists Jan and Hubert van Eyck’s polytych altarpiece, “Adoration of the Mystic Lamb”, which was completed in 1432. The work was commissioned by Jodocus Vijd, a high official comparable to a mayor, which can be seen with his wife, Isabella Borluut, on the outside of the polyptych’s two shutters. This is considered to be Belgium’s most famous painting.
The Ghent Altarpiece is also called the “Adoration of the Mystic Lamb” because when it’s opened all of the bottom panels show a crowd of pilgrims surrounding the focal: point is a lamb, representing Jesus Christ, the Lamb of God, standing in the middle of an altar with its blood gathering to a fountain of Life. There are twenty four framed wooden panels that make up the polytych altarpiece. When opened Adam and Eve are painted on the upper panels on the left and right side. Van Eyck spared no detail, even adding the “farmer’s tan” of his hands and face, and the darkened line on Eve’s belly that is typically prominent in pregnant women. Adam and Eve are looking up and represent humanity. Also on the top panels you can see the figure of God in the middle, the Virgin Mary to the left, and John the Baptist on the right. The panels beside Adam and beside Eve shows a group of singing angels. Mary is wearing a crown, symbolic of being the “Queen of Heaven”, and the color blue which represents the sky. God is also called Deesis. God is wearing red, a warm color, a symbol of the blood of Jesus, which also looks like a cardinal’s robe. God is holding a rock cut crystal scepter and is raising two fingers for blessings, yet he looks unapproachable. John the Baptist is wearing a scraggly beard and a green, a cool color, representing “wild men” and nature. The angles in the heavenly concert are shown to play musical instruments, contemporary to 1430.
The Ghent Altarpiece has been coveted since its completion. “It has been stolen at least six times, looted in three different wars, held for ransom, sold illegally and part of it is still missing.” The art was famous almost as soon as it was finished in 1432. During the French occupation of Flanders in 1794 it was transferred to Paris and returned in 1815 by French King Louis XVIII. During World War II it was taken by the Nazis. When Napoleon took it to Paris the side wings were sold. When it was taken in World War II it was kept in the Hitler museum. In 1566 there were attempts to capture and burn the altarpiece, but Catholic guards hid the panels inside a tower, six panels were bought by the Prussian king, Frederick WIlliam III in 1821, in 1934 “The Just Judges” panel was mysteriously stolen, and in 1946 the painting returned from the Nazi captivity to it’s original room inside the St. Bavo cathedral in Ghent, where it was originally commissioned.
Restoring the Ghent Altarpiece is said to be a painstaking process, according to restoration artist, Bart Devolder, and his colleagues from Belgium’s Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage. Devolder’s team will use chemicals to slowly remove old varnish and retouch the areas that have been damaged. As each panel is taken from the St. Bavo Cathedral to the museum to be cleaned and repaired, a black-and-white photograph is hung to replace the missing section so the viewers can still view the work in its entirety. The restoration team members have done extensive study and try to restore it as close to the original state as possible. “Italian conservator Lydia Depuydt says once the restoration is complete, experts will have a much better idea of how Jan Van Eyck originally intended the altarpiece to look, although the colours will not be identical.”
The people of Ghent feel proud to claim the Ghent Altarpiece as their own, though some may feel that one point million euros the Belgian taxpayers have to pay may be too much money to invest in just one piece of art, and others feel that it is a cause well worth the investment. “Ninety-nine per cent of all tourists come to Ghent to visit the altarpiece. They have money and they invest in restaurants and hotels, and they keep the economy going,” Professor. van Grevenstein-Kruse of the University of Amsterdam says. In conclusion, the restoration of van Eych’s Ghent Altarpiece not only affects the people of Ghent, but also millions of admirers, art enthusiasts, religious patrons, and curious folks looking to hear a good story. Restoring the “Adoration of the Mystic Lamb” may very well restore the appreciation, faith, and humanity for several generations to come. “For people in Belgium, this is like the Mona Lisa. Or it is the equivalent of what the Sistine Chapel is to Italians. The Ghent Altarpiece is something special and I want my grandchildren to be able to see it, too.
Bibliography
Professor Daniel Cole, Appalachian State University, Lecture, ART 2130, 13 September 2017.
Savage, Maddy, “Million-euro makeover for Belgium’s Ghent Altarpiece.” 11 October 2012. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-19885610
Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt. Cothren. Art History. Vol. II. Boston: Pearson Education, 2018.
The Deposition, Rogier Van der Weyden Article Analysis 04 October 2017
The “Great Works: The Deposition (1436), Rogier Van der Weyden” article was written by Michael Glover. “Van der Weyden himself, born in Tournai in 1400, was one of the greatest of the so called ‘Flemish Primitives’, that group of painters who worked in the Southern Netherlands during the fifteenth century, and brought to painting a radical new way of treating secular and religious subject matter, an often painfully brutish kind of realism.”
The work, “Deposition” is also referred to as “Descent from the Cross”. Oil paints can show textures and intricate details, but they also help to portray deep emotional expressions. Even the tears painted on each individual’s face are very realistic and emotional. There was a great attention given to the effects of light reflecting off of and refracting through the tears. The moisture of the tears, intricate folds of the fabrics, and textures of the elements in the scene arouse more than just the visual senses. It is as if the viewer can feel the textures of the clothes, feel the wet drops of the tears, and even taste the tears and empathize with the figures of the composition. The work was commissioned by the Crossbowman Guild, displaying little crossbows in every corner. Also, the way Christ’s body is positioned it looks like a crossbow. His feet are still nailed together, and his wounds have a profound and graphic realism.
Van der Weyden often contorted his figures to exaggerate and dramatize emotional expression. Jesus’ corpse has thin, angular arms, and Mary Magdalen is seen to the far right wringing her hands while her arms are contorted at sharp and dramatic angles. John the Evangelist and Mary Magdalen are both posed with an “s-curve”. The large scale and the realism of his composition further add to the dramatic impact on the viewers. It would seem the story is happening right in front of the viewer.
Van Eych’s use of space in the “Ghent Altarpiece” was vast, giving the viewer room to feel comfortable and take their time to roam around the scene. In contrast, “The drama of their outrageous grief seems to burst out of the painting – there is space for nothing else.” Van der Weyden’s compositions usually use a very shallow space, forcing the figures to appear to be coming at the viewer. The shape of the painting is suggestive of the shape of the cross that Jesus died on, and that cross is in the uppermost part of the composition. The cross, though, is too small for Jesus to fit on. The duplication of Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary being supported both physically and emotionally by two people, emphasises the emotional import of the scene. Being in very similar positions links them together as a mother and son relationship. This positioning is not shared with anyone else in the painting. There seems to be a connection between the Virgin Mary having fainted and Jesus Christ having died, both to be awaken soon after. This may be foreshadowing the resurrection.
Van der Weyden’s use of color further adds to the emotional impact. The Virgin Mary is wearing solid blue, John the Evangelist is wearing solid red, and Christ is wearing white,
emphasizing them as the main characters of the scene. The golden and patterned attire of Joseph of Arimathea and the vivid dress of Mary Magdalen, increases the impact of the right side of the composition to balance the visual weight of the vividly colored characters on the left side.
When considering van der Weyden’s use of expression, movement, vibrant color, and space, one can see how his works have impacted the works of others through time. Glover writes, “This painting, Van Der Weyden's masterpiece, was not only copied and re-copied. It also resonated down the centuries. The way in which he distorts the figure undoubtedly had its impact upon Picasso and Matisse.” Van der Weyden was considered by some to be a pioneer artist who dramatize facial and body expression to convey a feeling in the viewer and makes them feel deeply involved physically, emotionally, spiritually, and mentally.
Bibliography
Glover, Michael, “Great Works: The Deposition (1436), Rogier Van der Weyden.” 27 August 2009. http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/great-works/Great-works-The-deposition-1436-rogier-van-der-weyden-1777980.html
Professor Daniel Cole, Appalachian State University, Lecture, ART 2130, 18 September 2017.
Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt. Cothren. Art History. Vol. II. Boston: Pearson Education, 2018.
Jan van Eyck and Chancellor Rolin Article Analysis 09 October 2017
While Laura Gelfand presents many works in her article, Piety, Nobility and Posterity: Wealth and the Ruin of Nicolas Rolin’s Reputation, the featured work is the “Rolin Madonna”, completed in 1435 by Jan van Eyck. Gelfand’s article aims to elaborate Jan van Eyck’s opinion of Chancellor Rolin by examining the negative perceptions of Rolin while he was a member of the Valois court, and by taking a closer look at his charity to better understand how van Eyck’s works were affected.
In taking a closer look at the composition one can note several significant details. One detail was hidden, later to be discovered by infrared technology. Originally the arm of the baby Jesus was painted down towards the floor, but Chancellor Rolin requested van Eyck to change it to being raised for a blessing. Rolin wanted to show his dedication to the Virgin Mary to the congregation of Notre-Dame du Châtel. Chancellor Rolin requested to be seated across from the Virgin Mary and Baby Jesus, thus trying to be comparable and appear just as prominent as they are in the composition. The peacocks in the left side of the composition represent Rolin’s pride. The three archways in the background represent the Holy Trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The sins of mankind appear in the pillars to the left of Rolin from the Book of Genesis: Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, the Murder of Abel, and Noah’s Arc. The garden has great symbolism of the Virgin Mary: White lilies represent purity, white roses represent suffering, the peony represents paradise, daisies represent the Virgin’s innocence, and irises symbolise pain.
Chancellor Rolin wanted to sponsor the painting, along with several other gifts, to counter all of the negativity he had of his reputation at that time. When examining “Madonna of Chancellor Rolin” here are eleven signs that suggests van Eyck does not like him: 1. The size of the painting, 2. Mary doesn’t look at him, 3. Jesus looks unhappy about blessing him, 4. The vanishing point is on an island, 5. Visually he makes you look outside at the detailed city, 6. Other people are looking down on the balcony, and that takes the focus off of him, 7. Chancellor’s ace is flattened so it doesn’t block the view of outside, 8. Chancellor has small hands as a sign that he doesn’t work, 9. If you squint your eyes his color make him blend in, 10. Baby Jesus is pointing at the bridge suggesting between heaven and earth, and 11. The 7 deadly sins are on Rolin’s side of the composition: two men outside being slothful, Adam and Eve kicked out of Paradise, the Envy of Noah being drunk, a lion’s head symbolizes anger, rabbits symbolize lust.
In the fifteenth-century, as well as today, there were those who held doubt about the authenticity of Rolin’s spirituality. According to Gelfand’s article, “Louis XI (1423-1483) detested Rolin and said of his foundation in Beaune, ‘It is only right that Rolin, after having made so many poor during his life, should leave an asylum for them after his death.’” The painting shows Chancellor Rolin confessing his sins, according to Craig Harbison, who also focused on Rolin’s sinful nature. Gelfand writes, “Harbison writes that, although ‘other patrons were portrayed receiving priestly forgiveness, Rolin feels powerful enough to receive absolution directly from Chris,.’ but there is no reason to believe that Van Eyck depicted a public confession nor is it likely that Rolin would have commissioned such an image.”Chancellor Rolin was not born noble, though he was exceedingly wealthy. Rolin wanted to be seen as an equal to the nobles of society, just as he seems to want to be of equal of importance as the Virgin and Christ in van Eyck’s work, and perhaps he used his patronage to climb a social latter. It was thought to be very egotistical and pius of Rolin to have himself displayed so casually in the same holy space as the Madonna and child. Others may argue that Rolin’s position in the work is comparable to Richard II in the Wilton Diptych, or to Jean de Berry in the Brussels Hours, which were not seen as hubristic or pius.
Gelfand’s article also touches on another perspective. The majority of Rolin’s critics were actually the nobles of the court whom he associated with, and their envy of his wealth despite his social status of not being born noble, may have been at least part of why his reputation was negative. Rolin even ordered elaborate clothing and events for three days of mourning for his own funeral. All high-ranking officials in the court, whether noble-born or not, went to spent a lot of money to show themselves as vivre noblement, or “living a noble life”.
Nicolas Rolin’s father owned and managed many land properties, leaving him and his brother a large inheritance, and when his brother died he got it all, including the family home. He studied law and served several prestigious clients and advancing his career until being recognised as one of the most important diplomats in European politics, later to be knighted by Philip the Good. Rolin’s wealth further developed as his involvement in matters of the state increased while Burgundy’s relations with France and England were strained. Rolin and his wife, Guigone de Salin, founded the Hôtel-Dieu, which was converted to a hospital for the poor in Beaune, as there were many who were poor and in bad health in Beaune. Philip the good visited the hotel and was so impressed that he gave it a tax-free status and donated more funds to keep it operational, expressing how pleased he was with Rolin’s donation and associating himself with the success of the foundation. Rolin and his wife found out that the headmistress of the Hôtel-Dieu was mistreating the ladies who worked there under strict religious regulations she imposed. Rolin and Guigone made new, non-religious, rules and regulations that would better protect both the poor patients of the hospital and their caregivers. Rolin’s involvement in the Hôtel-Dieu hospital shows that he had genuine charity did not necessarily want to just show his vivre noblement. If we can view Jan van Eyck’s “Madonna of Chancellor Rolin” without acknowledging the envy others had towards him and consider, instead, the truly charitable acts he had through his foundations we may be able to see him how he intended us to. As Gelfand geniusly stated, “we see a wealthy man striving for salvation and status in a courtly world in which blood was in many ways thicker than gold.”
Bibliography
Gelfand, Laura. "Piety, Nobility and Posterity: Wealth and the Ruin of Nicolas Rolin’s Reputation," Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art 1:1 (Winter 2009) DOI: 10.5092/jhna.2009.1.1.3
Jarrett, Alyssa. “The Madonna of Chancellor Rolin.” YouTube, YouTube, 15 Jan. 2016, www.youtube.com/watch?v=VN5B9Gf5vaU.
Professor Daniel Cole, Appalachian State University, Lecture, ART 2130, 13 September 2017.
Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt. Cothren. Art History. Vol. II. Boston: Pearson Education, 2018.
Giotto and the Devil Article Analysis 09 November 2017
The Daily Mail article, “Devil was in the detail for Giotto as art restorers discover hidden satanic smile in famous 13th century fresco”, is primarily written about “The Death And Ascension of St. Francis”, also called “La morte e l'Ascensione di San Francesco”, which was completed by Giotto di Bondone around the year 1300. This fresco painting is in the Basilica (church) of St. Francis in Assisi, Italy. The Basilica of St. Francis, which was begun in 1228, houses frescos from several artists from the Roman and Tuscan schools, including Cimabue, Giotto, Simone Martini, Pietro Lorenzetti and possibly Pietro Cavallini. Giotto also designed a beautiful stand-alone bell tower, the Campanile, for the Florence Cathedral on the Piazza del Duomo in Florence, Italy, which stands adjacent to the Baptistry of St. John and the Basilica of Santa Maria del Fiore.
“The Death And Ascension of St. Francis” is only one in a series of twenty-eight frescos depicting the life of Saint Francis. In the lower section of this composition we can see the dead body of Saint Francis surrounded by several mourners with their heads bowed in sorrow. Standing in the middle-ground we see what appears to be several Catholic monks as well as the Pope standing with heads bowed to honor the saint. Above we can see a group of ten angels gathered to guide the spirit of Saint Francis into the heavens. “The Ascension”, like other Giotto works, is a rather flat composition in structure, yet the use of color and value adds limited depth. The main colors used in this piece are shades and tints of the primary colors scheme: red, yellow, and blue. Upon careful assessment of color and placement there is great balance. The viewer’s eye does, however, become drawn to the pope’s deep red, crossed ribbon, and then moves upward towards the now ascended Saint Frances. Like other Giotto works, the position of the figures within the symmetrical composition are similar to his predecessor, Cimabue. Similarly to Giotto’s work, “Virgin and Child Enthroned”, the structure of the composition involves layering of figures to create a sense of a more three-dimensional subjects, and Giotto steps away from the traditional flat Greek style with his use of light and shadows. The brushstrokes create a lot of texture, especially within the sky and ground. Being a buon fresco, “fresh” water-based painting directly onto the wet plaster, “The Ascension” may have lost some detail and pigment in the process, as many areas look blotted. When a buon fresco dries the pigments of color are sealed in tight and becomes a part of the plaster, so there is very little room for mistakes. The artists have to work carefully, and often one day at a time, known as giornata.
Giotto greatly impacted and revived the early Florentine Renaissance by drawing from live figures before painting, which had not been done in two-hundred years. Daily Mail does briefly mention that Giotto’s most famous fresco was done in the Arena Chapel in Padula. This fresco series is of the life of Christ. Some pieces of this series include “Marriage at Cana, Raising of Lazarus, Lamentation, and Resurrection/Noli Me Tangere.” Giotto tells the whole story in one image and focuses on the climax of that story while using emotional and, in some circumstances, humorous figures.
The main subject of the Daily Mail article was the hidden smiling face in the clouds of Giotto’s fresco, “The Death And Ascension of St. Francis”. The face was discovered by an Italian art historian, Chiara Frugone, and is described to have a sly smile, hooked nose, and dark horns. While there are a couple of other theories on why Giotto painted the hidden face, one thing is certain: This was no happy accident. The strokes around the face are deliberate. While there are similar sharp and wispy brush strokes of value within and around the white shape, the dark, thin lines on the outer edges no doubt create an eye crease, definition in a high cheekbone, defined nostrils on a Greek nose, thin lips with a long-drawn smile, and a large rounded chin. The forehead is quite round, and there are two darker indigo areas further up the “forehead” area that could suggest to be the base of forward-facing horns. After further reading and viewing the provided image of a statue of Giotto from Wikipedia within the article, some believe that the hidden face may actually be a self portrait, as indicated in the comments. Giotto di Bondone’s works are enjoyed by many and have been essential to the Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi and to the Arena Chapel in Padua in telling elaborate narratives through a series of compositions. These well thought out murals attract several tourists, Catholics on pilgrimage, and art enthusiasts throughout the world. The impact Giotto had on the Florentine Renaissance was a pillar of success for all artists who followed suite. Giotto was said to have been better than his master, Cimabue. In finding this clever little devil in “The Death And Ascension of St. Francis” one may now be so inclined to more carefully analyze his other works for more hidden images and messages.
Bibliography
Professor Daniel Cole, Appalachian State University, Lecture, ART 2130, 13 September 2017.
"Devil was in the detail for Giotto as art restorers discover hidden satanic smile in famous 13th century fresco." Daily Mail Online. November 08, 2011. Accessed October 11, 2017. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2058997/Devil-Giotto-fresco-Art-restorers-satanic-smile-St-Francis-Assisi-Basilica.html.
Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt. Cothren. Art History. Vol. II. Boston: Pearson Education, 2018.
VideoVoyage.TV. YouTube. July 08, 2014. Accessed November 09, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Cyzow3IOoQ.
The Dead Christ by Mantegna Article Analysis 10 November 2017
Michael Glover’s article, “Great Works: The Dead Christ, by Andrea Mantegna c.1480” vividly describes the work, Mantegna’s career with the Gonzaga family, and his other masterpiece, “Camera Picta”.
The Dead Christ, also known as Lamentation of Christ or Lamentation over the Dead Christ, was completed in the year 1480. The painting still belonged to Mantegna at the time of his death and was never delivered to a patron. It is similar to one of Mantegna’s early drawings, Man Lying on a Stone Slab, which may have been sketched in preparation for this work. The facial features and expression, body type, and use of foreshortening on the feet are all very similar, yet the Man Lying on a Stone Slab is sitting up on his elbow and at least partially alert.
In The Dead Christ we see Christ laying on a marble slab, Saint John the Evangelist, Mother Mary, and a part of a third figure in mourning in the top left corner in the shadows. The third figure beside Christ is believed to be Mary Magdalene, as found by the evidence of the jar of ointment sitting by his shoulder on the slab, which she used to anoint Christ’s feet..
Mantegna used linear perspective in the edges of the bed, the angle of the arms lining up above the head, off canvas. There is a hint of a halo to show some divine power, and light fading. The use of color is limited to mostly pinks, greys, and dusty blues, making the scene very cold and heavy to the viewer. The scene is in the burial tomb of Christ, and the foreshortening of Christ’s legs and feet seem to draw the viewer directly into the painful expression in his face. The legs and feet were made smaller to focus more on the face of Christ, as well as his mourners. While the feet are smaller and out of proportion with the body and head of the Christ figure, the detail in the punctures in the feet and hands are very detailed. The edges of the holes have a crispness, implying the skin surrounding the puncture has dried. The hands and head of the Christ figure have been made more vertical, allowing the viewer to better see the great detail of the wounds and the grave expression on the face. The Catholics did not want to see this piece in 1480 because it was too morbid.
Glover describes Mantegna’s use of foreshortening in expressing, “this looks like the body of a dead dwarf, with a large and over-heavy head.” The reason Mangena used foreshortening in the first place was to draw attention to Christ’s face. He also adds that the rib cage looks swollen. Usually after death gasses are released when the body begins to break down. Having the rib cage look swollen gives the subject all the more realistic look and feel. This Lamentation of Christ is far from previous medieval works on the same theme due to the realism, perspective, and proportions due to foreshortening.
Glover’s article also covered Mantegna's fresco in the Camera Picta, translated “Painted Room,” Also known as the Camera degli Sposi, translated “Painted Bridal Chamber”. In particular Glover refers to the painting on the ceiling, which looks like an oculus to a beautiful blue sky with several figures surrounding and interacting with the opening, an oculus. On the painted oculus, again, we see several putti, small winged child-like creatures. Some are peering over the railing, while others are hanging onto the railing. There are also four lady figures by a planter, and another lady and a peacock on the other side. The ceiling is domed, and this technique of foreshortening Mantegna used is called di sotto in su, translated “from below upwards”.
Mantegna is an expert in the technique of foreshortening and loves geometry. All figures are foreshortened to give the illusion that we are looking up into a three-dimensional space. Surprisingly, all of the crown molding we see in the Camera Picta is actually painted, including the architectural elements such as the railing of the oculus, crown molding, and the archways. On the ceiling, too, are fictive reliefs of the first eight ancient Roman emperors in classic imperial antiquity, which would be appropriate for a court city like Mantua that is ruled by a court and marquis. Mantegna for Ludovico Gonzaga and the Gonzaga family for the remainder of his life. He painted the Gonzaga family in the Camera Picta, and also illustrated incidents of his patrons of the court. The work Mantegna did in the Camera Picta in Padua was a great influence and began a long tradition of illusionistic ceiling painting in several Baroque churches.
Bibliography
Glover, Michael, “Great Works: The Dead Christ, by Andrea Mantegna c.1480.” 21 September 2012. http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/great-works/great-works-the-dead-christ-by-andrea-mantegna-c1480-8160310.html
Harris, Beth, and Steven Zucker. "Mantegna, Dead Christ." Khan Academy. April 8, 2013. Accessed November 11, 2017. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/renaissance-venice/venice-early-ren/v/mantegna-dead-christ-c-1490.
Harris, Beth, and Steven Zucker with David Drogin. "Mantegna, Camera degli Sposi." Khan Academy. August 13, 2012. Accessed November 12, 2017. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/renaissance-venice/venice-early-ren/v/andrea-mantegna-camera-degli-sposi-frescos-in-the-ducal-palace-mantua-1465-74.
Professor Daniel Cole, Appalachian State University, Lecture, ART 2130, 02 October 2017.
Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt. Cothren. Art History. Vol. II. Boston: Pearson Education, 2018.
The Sistine Chapel Restoration Article Analysis 12 November 2017 Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) grew up in Florence and had an apprenticeship under Ghirlandaio at the age of thirteen where he advanced his skills and technique in drawing, fresco painting, and studied Classical monuments and poetry. Michelangelo was greatly influenced by the Medici family’s collection of sculpture while boarding with Lorenzo the Magnificent. One of his great early works when Michelangelo was around the age of twenty-five years old was the marble sculpture, Pieta, depicting the Virgin Mary holding the deceased Christ on her lap. The theme of this sculpture was unusual at this time in Italy, though it was very popular. Though Christ is shown as a fully-grown adult the proportion is at a smaller scale, perhaps allowing the viewer to appreciate this young man, the Christ, is still Mary’s child. Michelangelo's most famous sculpture, the Statue of David, was commissioned in 1501 and completed in 1504. Standing tall and proud we see the biblical David holding a sling over his left shoulder, and perhaps his right hand is cupping a stone as it rests at his side. Just like Pieta, the details carved and smoothed from the marble stone are exquisite. One can see fine muscles and even veins. David is portrayed as the ideal imagery of how athletic men should look, and his gaze is quite captivating. “This David stands for right over might.” This work was admired by the people so much that instead of placing the finished work in a cathedral it was placed in the city square next to the seat of Florence’s government, as a good reminder of Florence’s republican status.
Michelangelo envisioned that his works were already within the quality marble stones he chose from the Carrara quarries in central Italy, just waiting on his tools to set them free. While he is renowned for his sculpture throughout his career, the fresco paintings on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel are perhaps one of his more widely known projects. The Vatican State article, “The Sistine Chapel,” focuses on Michelangelo's painting technique and the restoration of the works.
In 1505 Pope Julius II wanted Michelangelo to work on a tomb for himself, where he worked on it for two years, and then ordered Michelangelo to start working on the Sistine Chapel frescos instead. To made a sculpture to paint was a strong-willed decision by the Pope. Michelangelo hated the job because he has to lay down to paint the ceiling. Michelangelo painted an illusion of some architectural features, and used his painting to enhance some architecture that was already there. In painting the frescos with great skill Michelangelo’s use of texture, strokes, and color gave the appearance that the foreground subjects were more sharp and in focus that the elements in the background. The pigments Michelangelo used were of the highest quality natural ingredients, ensuring, allowing the longevity of the preservation of the frescos. From 1508 to 1512 Michelangelo is solely working on the Sistine Chapel and he makes his own executive creative decisions, winning over his patron.
The Creation of Adam is one of the most recognisable frescos in The Sistine Chapel collection. With Creation of Adam Adam is on land, his body is relaxed, his head is relaxed to the side his hand is limp, and he has to rest. Adam is just a body, but God is active and is going to spring life into Adam. Adam and God’s profiles are very similar because Adam is “made in God’s image.” The spirit of Eve is under God’s left arm, and she is alert and full of energy. Some people interpret the curve behind God to be a brain.
When planning the restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescos scholars decided to only keep Daniele da Volterra’s addition and to remove all subsequent additions. The restoration was done between 1980 and 1994 coordinated by Director Carlo Pietrangeli. Between 1980 and 1993 the frescoes were cleaned, and The Last Judgement was restored after four years in 1994. The frescos were painted over making the colors look darker and duller over time.Daniel before the restoration and after removing air pollution makes the colors more vibrant. During restoration they also took off gesso additions. The angel whispering in his ear is more clear, the book being held is more red, and yellow fabric on his knee and much brighter.
Much later, between 1536 and 1541, Michelangelo painted another huge fresco, The Last Judgement, behind the altar of the Sistine Chapel. Now Christ is painted as the supreme judge wielding a very thick, muscular body and holding a dramatic pose, while his mother, Mary, seems to cower at the events of this last judgement of souls. The piece is almost chaotic in organization, where we see several areas - each with its own story and theme, and with recognizable characters. No doubt the original Sistine Chapel frescos still had an inspiration for Michelangelo, though he did complain bitterly of being old. The student had definitely become the master. Surely Ghirlandaio would be proud of his apprentice.
Bibliography
Professor Daniel Cole, Appalachian State University, Lecture, ART 2130, 16 October 2017.
Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt. Cothren. Art History. Vol. II. Boston: Pearson Education, 2018.
Vatican City State, “The Sistine Chapel.” http://www.vaticanstate.va/content/vaticanstate/en/monumenti/musei-vaticani/cappella-sistina.paginate.6.html
The Lady with an Ermine Article Analysis 12 November 2017 Roya Nikkhah of BBC News’ article, “Leonardo Da Vinci ‘painted three Ermine portraits’” article discusses the three stages of the painted portrait revealed by French scientist and engineer from Lumiere Technology, Pascal Cotte, by using reflective light technology. LAM, Layer Amplification Method, was pioneered by Mr. Cotte, the co-founder of Lumiere Technology in Paris. By using intense lights and taking a series of pictures of the painting measurements can be taken and analysed to determine what changes happened between the layers of paint.
The Lady with an Ermine is a portrait of Cecilia Gallerani painted by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), a mistress of Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan, and tells us about da Vinci’s thought process on the piece. Lady Cecilia Gallerani is holding an ermine, which is a northern wessel, and she is thought to be looking far off with her eyebrow raised, most-likely acknowledging the Duke.
The discovery revealed the three stages of the painting. The first one was Lady Cecilia Gallerani sitting with both hands in her lap and arms crossed. In the second stage Leonardo removed the black ribbon on Cecilia’s chest area, added a blue cloth with a golden trim on her left shoulder, raised her right hand, and added a skinny, gray ermine in the crook of her left arm, resting on her arm and chest. On the third and final stage of the process the grey ermine was replaced by a muscular white ermine with lion-like paws, representing her lover, the Duke of Milan.
It is believed that either Leonardo took artistic license and added the gray ermine as a subtle hint that the Lady Gallerani was his patron’s mistress, or that it was the Lady Gallerani, herself, who wanted to have the ermine added. It is more believable that Lady Gallerani requested the addition of the ermine because in the third stage the ermine is white and muscular, and the Duke’s nickname was the White Ermine. It is believed that she wanted the Milanese court to know about her relationship with the Duke. According to the New World Encyclopedia, “The ermine was also considered a symbol of purity in Europe.” Perhaps Leonardo used a bit of satire in this composition.
Leonardo has created many works of beauty, and beautiful women. The ladies Leonardo has painted look rather similar: a subtle brow, petite lips, round and high cheekbones, almond-shaped eyes, and a soft, round figure. In The Virgin of the Rocks (1485) Mary and the angel have very similar features like Lady Gallerani of Lady with an Ermine. Just like in The Virgin of the Rocks, Leonardo used the Classic High Renaissance technique of chiaroscuro, from the Italian words chiaro meaning “light,” and oscuro, meaning “dark,” like a spot-light used to enhance the figures and bring them out of the dark background. Many of Leonardo’s works use chiaroscuro, including the famous Mona Lisa portrait of Lisa di Antonio Maria Gherardini, the wife of Francesco del Giocondo, a Florentine merchant. In all three paintings Leonardo uses chiaroscuro as well as sfumato, Italian for “smokey”, and arranges the composition in pyramidal figure group or positions the portrait subject with a triangle, usually with the elbows out to the side and hands softly in the lap.
Leonardo’s Mona Lisa was never delivered to his patron; Instead, Leonardo kept this painting from around 1503 until his death in 1519. Because of the great length of time he retained the Mona Lisa it is believed that Leonardo continued to work on the painting and make minor changes throughout that duration while he was in Rome after 1513, as well as when he moved to France in 1516. The landscaped background of the Mona Lisa is quite unusual, also hinting that there may have been many changes or additions made during a long period of time. These hints from the Mona Lisa further confirm the evidence found in Lady with an Ermine that Leonardo da Vinci was always thinking, improving, changing, and moving. Those who knew him said that Leonardo never finished anything and his inventions distracted him from his painting.
Leonardo was not only interested in being an artist, but also showed great interest in geography, anatomy, botany, mathematics, and nature. He designed several machines, weapons, fortresses, vehicles, and even a parachute, always drawing out his ideas. He made detailed sketches of anatomy and wrote several notes on how the human body and several systems work. Always thinking, always learning, and always moving forward, Leonardo da Vinci is a master of several trades and a wealth of information, evidently always pushing himself to improve; evident of the Mona Lisa and of the Lady with an Ermine. Even if Lady Gallerani did not make the request we now understand that Leonardo would have preferred to improve it, regardless.
Bibliography
Professor Daniel Cole, Appalachian State University, Lecture, ART 2130, 09 October 2017.
New World Encyclopedia contributors, "Ermine," New World Encyclopedia, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Ermine&oldid=974401 (accessed November 20, 2017).
Nikkhah, Roya , “Leonardo Da Vinci 'painted three Ermine portraits'.” 29 September 2014. http://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-29407093.
Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt. Cothren. Art History. Vol. II. Boston: Pearson Education, 2018.
Donatello
Michelangelo
Bernini
Three Davids, Three Theologies Article Analysis 24 November 2017 Blogger, The Fine Art Diner (TFAD), wrote their article “3 Davids, 3 Theologies: Donatello, Michelangelo and Bernini” stating that each statue”historically represent[s] the beginning, height and end of the Italian Renaissance, as well as three very different views on man’ interaction with God.” With each David the artist uses the same subject of David, but ties in themes of significance from events or circumstances in their own time, also portraying individual attitudes and thoughts of the artists.
Donatello di Niccolo di Betto Bardi, better known as Donatello, was a member of the guild of stone-carvers and woodworkers,but also worked with bronze. Because Donatello was so versatile in his use and choice of media he became very famous and an important part of the Italian Renaissance.
Donatello’s David (1446-1460) is a bronze statue, and the first life-sized nude since antiquity. David was a symbol of the Florentine Republic, and represented the freedom of the people, and was placed in the Medici garden. This could have been seen as defiant of the Medici family who ruled at this time, as David is showing sure victory over Goliath in this position. TFAD suggests that the viewer could interpret the many “conflicts” in David’s Biblical story as a warning to the Medici Family. They were once in good standing with the Florentine people, just as David was in good standing with God, and over time David would eventually sin against God, bringing disease upon Israel, just as Donatello foresaw the Medici family would bring corruption.
The body is fit but not masculine, having no hard edges. The statue has a boyish torso and manly weapons and responsibility. David is starting out on his faith journey In the Bible Saul gives David his own armor, but David is uncomfortable, so he takes the armor off. After hitting the giant with the stone David uses Goliath’s own sword to decapitate him. Donatello includes Goliath’s sword in the composition. TFAD interprets the large sword to represent the Sword of Truth from Revelations to remind viewers that David foreshadows Jesus Christ’s arrival. The position of David is contrapposto, meaning one leg is bent and the weight is placed on the other leg. One hand is on Goliath’s sword, while the other is on his hip, grasping a large stone. This gives the figure a sense of movement.
This statue is seen, to some, as erotic, or even homoerotic, because David is only wearing a soft hat and boots, and while he’s stepping on Goliath's head his knee is bent exposing his private area even more defiantly, and a large feather from Goliath’s helmet is lightly riding up on David’s inner thigh. TFAD counters this interpretation by suggesting that the large feather represents the Holy Spirit supporting David, as the Bible symbolizes the Holy Spirit with a dove, and often feathers are used to symbolize this. Furthermore, TFAD suggests that David is a young boy, and young in the spirit, and has yet to be clothed in the armor of God, and that the boots represent the will do go forth and serve God’s will. Andrea del Verrocchio also made a bronze David statue (1470-1475), also in contrapposto, also with a sword in hand, hand on hip, and Goliath’s head at his feet, and this statue was also commissioned by the Medici family. This statue was for the Palazzo Medici, where Donatello’s David was, as well.
Michelangelo Buonarroti, better known as just Michelangelo, created the statue of David between 1501 and 1504, sculpted out of a marble block 18’x17’. Like Donatello’s David, Michelangelo’s David was made for the Florentine Republic, a group of men who are elected to run the city-state. The Medici family still had support in ruling Florence and wanted to break the David statue into several pieces because David is a symbol for the Republic, and it was supposed to go on top of the Cathedral or in the plaza. Instead of making David in a pose of triumphant victory, Michelangelo posed him with the sling over his left shoulder, larger rock clenched by his side with his right hand, a strong contrapposto stance, and a gaze of certainty into the distance, representing the potential of the Florentine people rather than the victory. His brow is knitted in preparation for the battle ahead with the giant. Michelangelo’s David is not a boy like Donatello’s, but a fully masculine man in his twenties. The Fine Art Diner suggests that the large hands of Michelangelo’s David represent the freedom of the Florentine Republic to be instruments of God and his will and to fulfil their destiny. For Michelangelo, TFAD suggests, it is by David’s hand that Goliath falls, and not just by the support of the Holy Spirit.
Being in the Baroque Period, Bernini’s David (1623), unlike Donatello and Michelangelo’s, is in full action, forceful, and in the middle of throwing the stone with his sling, seemingly to be thrown into our space. The David appears to be filed with the Holy Spirit, and some have acknowledged that his hair is parted into three sections representing the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The Fine Art Diner suggests that Bernini’s David is covered, rather than exposed, not as an act of modesty, but to honor his humility in being honored to carry the seed that would one day become Jesus Christ. TFAD further suggests that by having David in a twisting position with the cloth draping in the air, the air represents the Holy Spirit, just as the feather did for Donatello’s David.
David went from an adolescent boy of inexperience and innocence basking in victory, to a young man of certainty and strength in preparation for his task, to an agile man of determination in action. Three Davids in three moments of the same story, but with several interpretations are presented. One thing is sure: David is an important representation of the people, and how they should be free to do their very best and overcome all obstacles.
Bibliography
Professor Daniel Cole, Appalachian State University, Lecture, ART 2130-103.
Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt. Cothren. Art History. Vol. II. Boston: Pearson Education, 2018.
THE FINE ART DINER. "3 Davids, 3 Theologies: Donatello, Michelangelo and Bernini.” June 14, 2011. Updated 28 February 2015. Accessed November 24, 2017. http://thefineartdiner.blogspot.com/2011/06/3-davids-3-theologies-donatello.html.